Determinants of Engagement and Outcomes in Flipped Classroom Engineering Education: An Empirical PLS-SEM Analysis

Abstract

The integration of flipped classroom models in engineering education is reshaping traditional pedagogical paradigms by leveraging technology to foster active learning, critical thinking, and student autonomy. This study investigates how faculty readiness, institutional support, courseware relevance, and technological barriers jointly influence learning engagement and outcomes among engineering students. A survey of 500 undergraduates from multiple engineering colleges forms the empirical foundation for this Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) analysis. Results confirm that faculty readiness and institutional support significantly enhance student engagement, while the relevance of digital courseware serves as an essential catalyst for self-directed learning and meaningful participation. Technological barriers are found to negatively moderate these relationships, underscoring the persistent digital divide’s role in shaping student experiences. Learning engagement emerges as a robust mediator, linking input factors with academic outcomes and validating active learning and technology acceptance theories. The study’s findings contribute to both theoretical refinement and practical guidance highlighting the need for ongoing investments in faculty development, digital infrastructure, and inclusive teaching resources. Implications suggest that sustainable advances in flipped learning require systemic solutions that align institutional culture, curricular innovation, and equitable technology access. The paper concludes with policy recommendations and a roadmap for future research on digital pedagogy in engineering.